Opioids are mainly metabolized in the liver, hence chronic consumption of the substance leads to serious liver damage. It has been demonstrated that chronic administration of morphine causes the suppression of hepatic antioxidant system, elevation of oxidant indices and induction of apoptosis in hepatocytes in mice Zhang et al. It has also been shown that there is a direct association between the duration of heroin consumption and the severity of liver injury in heroin abusers Zhang et al.
Since liver plays a pivotal role in the metabolism of lipids, chronic liver diseases are associated with significant alterations in serum lipids Ooi et al. Therefore, the results may not be generalized to the whole population. Although a large body of evidences is available from human studies regarding the impact of opium consumption on cardio-metabolic disorders, however most of these studies are cross sectional in their design.
Limitations of the cross-sectional studies are simultaneous data collection concerning risk factors and outcomes which prevents an exact examination of the temporal transposition between them. In other words, it cannot be said for sure whether the higher prevalence of disorders in opium users is the result of opium consumption or the cause for opium consumption.
Therefore, it is suggested that more prospective longitudinal studies with large sample sizes to be conducted to clear this temporal precedence and to identify the pathophysiological mechanisms more precisely.
In spite of the fact that the results of the studies into the effect of opium on blood glucose, blood lipids and blood pressure are relatively incoherent, these findings, not only do not support the traditional beliefs about beneficial effects of opium and its derivatives on diabetes, dyslipidemia and hypertension, but they also represents their long term detrimental effects on these disorders and on many body organs.
Therefore, public awareness about these destructive effects of unauthorized use of opium would have an important role in health of individuals and the society.
HN contributed to the conception of the work, interpretation of data, drafting, critical revising, and final approval of the version to be published.
AB contributed to the acquisition and interpretation of data, drafting and final approval of the version to be published. Both authors agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work.
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
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Opium may be smoked, eaten raw or as a pill, or made into a tincture for drinking. There is no safe level of drug use. Use of any drug always carries some risk. If you take a large amount of opium, you could overdose. Taking multiple depressant drugs, like opium with alcohol or benzodiazepines, can significantly increase the chances of overdose. Taking opium with stimulants, like cocaine or speed, send opposite signals to your body, which can strain the heart.
Mixing opium and stimulants may also mask the effects of each other, which can increase the risk of overdose. Giving up opium after using it for a long time is challenging because the body must get used to functioning without it. Withdrawing from opium is similar to withdrawing from other opioid drugs. Withdrawal symptoms usually start six to 24 hours after the last dose and can last around seven to ten days. These symptoms are described as flu-like, and can include:.
Opium is illegal in Australia. Federal and state laws provide penalties for possessing, using, cultivating or selling opium, or driving under its influence. As doctors led fewer patients to addiction, another kind of user emerged as the new face of the addict. Opium smoking spread across the United States from the s into the s, with Chinese immigrants operating opium dens in most major cities and Western towns.
That shift created a political opening for prohibition. That changed in the s and s, he says. The Philippines were then a territory under American control, and the opium trade there raised significant concerns. President Theodore Roosevelt called for an international opium commission to meet in Shanghai at the urging of alarmed American missionaries stationed in the region.
The law, passed in February , limited supply and drove prices up. That pushed addicts toward more potent opiates, especially morphine and heroin. The subsequent Harrison Narcotic Act of , originally intended as a regulation of medical opium, became a near-prohibition. After the U.
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